Ohio Beef Quality Assurance Program

PREVENTING INJECTION SITE BLEMISHES/LESIONS

General Recommendations for Giving Injections
Correct administration is important for the proper use of animal health products.  You can help to avoid product discounts as a result of abscesses and lesions by following these simple procedures:

• Use well designed cattle restraining facilities to make the job of giving injections in the proper location safer and easier.

• Provide proper restraint to avoid breaking needles in animal tissue.

• Use the needle size proper for the situation.  Use the smallest needle possible to complete the injection, but large enough to prevent the needle from breaking off in the muscle.

• Purchase high quality needles, change needles often, and discard damaged needles.

• Give injections according to label instructions. Route: Subcutaneous (SQ) means under the skin; intramuscular (IM) means in the muscle, intravenous (IV) means into the blood; orally (PO and/or O) means in the mouth or in water, and (MF) indicates medicated feeds.

• Always use SQ or IV routes of administration when permitted by the product’s label.  Check product labels closely and administer the product as specified on the label.  Select products that have subcutaneous (SQ) as an approved route of administration.  Remember to “tent” the skin for SQ injections.  Ask suppliers to find products that have SQ, IV or oral routes of administration rather than intramuscular (IM).

• All injections must be administered in front of the point of the shoulder only, no exceptions (See figure 1, page 10).

• Administer less than 10 cc per IM injection site.  If 24 cc is the calculated dose, use three, 8 cc injections instead of two, 12 cc injections.  Properly space injections with a minimum of three inches separating injection sites.

• During bad weather, take extra care to seAdminister less than 10 cc per IM injection site.e that the injection site is free of manure and dirt and that syringes and needles are clean and disinfected.  Injecting cattle during wet weather increases the potential for carrying a contaminant into the injection site.

• Wetting the area around the chute will reduce the chance of contamination by dust and other foreign material of injection sites and open incisions.

• Overall sanitation of equipment and the working area, as well as the cleanliness of your employees and coworkers will reduce injection site defects.  A sound educational effort directed toward the people handling the cattle offers great potential for helping eliminate these problems.

Primary considerations in needle selection include route of administration, size of animal, and location or site.  Secondary consideration in needle selection includes viscosity of the fluid (how thick and tenacious the fluid is) and volume/amount of fluid injected.
 

Change needles every 10 to 15 head to prevent using a dull needle and developing a burr on the end of the needle.  Change needles immediately if the needle bends. Do not straighten it and use it again. Obtain a new needle if the needle in use becomes contaminated with feces or an irritating chemical.  Use only a sterile needle to pull vaccine or medicine from a bottle.  This keeps the contents in the bottle sterile.  Store unused needles in a protected area and dispose of used needles following these suggested guidelines.

Suggested disposal of used needles and syringes:

1. Place in a container with a secure lid;
2. Place the container in a rigid cardboard box lined with plastic;
3. Dispose of as solid waste.

Improper animal restraint is the cause of most bent needle problems.  While very rare, you and your veterinarian must determine how animals will be handled should a needle break in the neck muscle. A broken needle is an emergency and time will be of the essence. Broken needles migrate in tissue and if not immediately handled will be impossible to find, requiring the animal to be destroyed.  Under no circumstances should animals with broken needles be sold or sent to a packer.

The use of disposable equipment is recommended and preferred.  However, if used, reusable syringes and needles and other injection equipment should be heat sterilized by boiling.  Any disinfectants, including alcohol, if used, must be thoroughly rinsed from equipment for they will neutralize vaccine and chemically react with some antibiotics.  If disinfectant is used, syringes should be thoroughly rinsed with sterile water before use.  Sterile water can be purchased.  Distilled water is not sterile water. Consult your veterinarian before sterilizing equipment to make sure you are using proper techniques.  Improper sterilization can reduce the effectiveness of future injections and result in infection at the injection site.  Don’t contaminate modified live virus products with disinfectants as efficacy will be decreased or even eliminated.

Industry Targets for Carcass Traits
Improving quality and consistency begins first with understanding the industry targets for carcass traits.  As always, targets for carcass defects (injection site blemishes/lesions , bruises, dark cutters, liver condemnation, etc.) are zero.

The second step to improving quality and consistency is to receive feedback on performance of cattle that leave the production unit and to set goals to increase performance based on this information.  Producers must realize that if cattle don’t gain or convert efficiently, or if cattle grade Standard, or if carcasses have yield grades of 4 or 5, they must make adjustments to improve the consistency of not only beef products from their cattle, but the beef products within the whole industry.

The 1995 NBQA reported that dark cutting beef carcasses (dark cutters) result in a loss of $6.08 per beef animal harvested in the United States.  Dark cutters result from pre-harvest stress, which depletes muscle glycogen stores.  Without sufficient glycogen in the carcass, lactic acid cannot be produced to reduce the pH of the meat.  The result is dark, firm and dry lean.  Weather, growth promotants, genetics, disposition, and handling practices before harvest all play a role in causing dark cutters.

Feedlot data were obtained from nine large commercial feedlots by Colorado State University Scientists (Scanga et al., 1998).  Data were compiled for the period between June 1, 1993, through July 31, 1996, totaling 2,672,223 cattle, of these 18,106 were dark cutters, resulting in $4,024,058 in losses ($1.51 per animal harvested) as a result of dark cutters.

FEEDYARD:  Mean percentages of dark cutters per pen differed between individual feedyards.  This indicates that the incidence of dark cutters was in part due to different management philosophies or the structural attributes of the feedyards.  This may also be affected by when cattle are harvested during the week.  Cattle that are "start-up" cattle for the week can be expected to have more dark cutters because they may have more time to stand around than other sets of cattle brought in during the week.

IMPLANTS: Data from Colorado State University indicate that cattle tend to have a lower incidence of dark cutters per pen when the time from reimplantation to harvest was longer than 100 days.

ENVIRONMENT:  The occurrence of dark cutting beef is highest during very cold weather combined with precipitation.  This increases the rate of body-heat loss and elicits shivering.  The incidence of dark cutters is also high in hot weather or when large fluctuations in temperature occur over short periods of time. When temperature fluctuated more than 10 degrees in a 24 hour period, the incidence of dark cutters also increased.

MIXING DIFFERENT GROUPS OF CATTLE:  Don’t mix strange animals.  Fighting to establish a new social order 24-48 hours prior to slaughter can increase the incidence of dark cutters.  Mixing bulls can cause dark cutters within 90 minutes.

CROWDING: Crowding can increase the incidence of dark cutters.

GENETICS:  Temperament appears to be inherited.  Producers are encouraged to add disposition as a selection criteria.

The most common cause of bruising is a hard bump against a protruding object or horns.  Rough, careless handling causes more than 50% of all bruises.  It is advised not to rush livestock.  Let them follow the leader and move at their own pace.

Here are recommended practices to help reduce bruising:

HORNS:  Groups of horned cattle have more bruises than polled cattle; however, tipping will not reduce bruising.  Dehorning of cattle (manual or genetic) is recommended.  Over-crowding horned cattle on a truck will increase bruising.

GATES:  A common cause of loin bruises is throwing a gate into the side of an animal.  A bruise will result if the animal becomes wedged between the end of the gate and the fence.

PROTRUDING OBJECTS:  Broken boards, nails and exposed bolts should be eliminated.  Check facilities by looking for shiny, rubbed spots or tufts of hair.  Sliding gates (vertical or horizontal) should be padded with large-diameter hose.  Corners can be padded by cutting strips from old tires or conveyor belts.

FENCING:  Planks, sheet metal or other fencing materials should be installed on the side of posts toward the cattle.  If animals are being handled on both sides of the fence, install a belly rail to prevent them from catching hips on the posts.  The area from 28 inches to 52 inches from the floor is the hazard zone.

FLOORING:  In new facilities with concrete floors where cattle are handled, score the concrete with an 8-inch diamond pattern with grooves one inch deep.  In existing facilities, roughen the concrete or make a grid from 1-inch steel bars.

Bruising from improper cattle handling costs the industry $22 million annually in carcass trim at the time of processing.  Shipping fever and excess shrink caused by stress resulting from mishandling also lead to severe economic damage in the industry.  An understanding of cattle behavior will facilitate handling, reduce stress, reduce bruise defects and improve both handler safety and animal welfare.

CATTLE FACILITIES: Keep facilities and equipment in good condition. Watch for nails, loose boards and other hazards that could tear the hide or cause bruises or infections.  Corrals, pens and chutes should be the proper size for the number of animals and the type of processing being done.  Corrals, pens, and barns need to be clean and well ventilated.  Be sure there is good drainage to avoid standing water and excess manure accumulation.  Keep equipment clean and in good repair.

ANIMAL HANDLING: Processing should never be treated as a race.  Working cattle too quickly can lead to bruises, injection site damage, human injuries and incorrect records. Rough handling can cause the animal stress and reduce vaccination effectiveness.  Stress induced by improper handling lowers conception rates and reduces both immune and rumen functions.

CATTLE VISION:  Cattle have a wide-angle vision field in excess of 300 degrees.  Loading ramps and handling chutes should have solid walls to prevent animals from seeing distractions outside the working area.  Seeing moving objects and people through the sides of a chute can cause cattle to balk or become frightened.  Solid walls are especially important if animals are not completely tame or if they are unaccustomed to the facility.  Handling facilities should also be designed to eliminate shadows that may prevent cattle from entering the chutes or working alleys.

Cattle have a tendency to move from dark areas to lighter areas, provided the light is not glaring.  A spot light directed onto a ramp or other apparatus will often facilitate entry.  Handling facilities should be painted a uniform color because cattle are more likely to balk at a sudden change in color.

FLIGHT ZONE: An important concept of livestock handling is the animal’s flight zone or personal space.  When a person enters the flight zone, the animal moves away.  Understanding of the flight zone can reduce stress and help prevent accidents.  The size of the flight zone varies depending on how accustomed the cattle are to their current surroundings, people, etc.

The edge of the flight zone can be determined by slowly walking up to the animals. If the handler penetrates the flight zone too deeply, the animal will either bolt and run away or turn back and run past the person.  The animal will most likely stop moving when the handler retreats from the flight zone. The best place for the person to work is on the edge of the flight zone.  Cattle sometimes rear up and become agitated while waiting in a single file chute.  A common cause of this problem is a person leaning over the chute.

HEARING: Loud noises should be avoided in cattle handling facilities.  However, small amounts of noise can be used to assist in moving livestock.  Placing rubber stops on gates and squeeze chutes and positioning the hydraulic pump and motor away from the squeeze chute will help reduce noise.  It is also beneficial to pipe exhausts from pneumatic powered equipment away from the handling area.

CURVED CHUTES AND SOLID FENCES: Curved single file chutes or working alleys are especially recommended for moving cattle into a truck or squeeze chute.  A curved working system is more efficient for two reasons.  First, it prevents the animal from seeing to the end of the chute until it is almost there.  Second, it takes advantage of the natural tendency to circle around a handler moving along the inner radius.  A curved chute provides the greatest benefit when animals have to wait in line for vaccination or other procedures.  A curved chute with an inside radius of 13-16 ft will work well for handling cattle. Livestock will often balk when they have to move from an outdoor pen into a building.  To combat this problem, animals should be lined up in a single file chute/working alley outside.  Again, solid sides are recommended on both the handling facilities and the crowding pen that leads to a squeeze chute or loading ramp.

According to the National Animal Health Monitoring Service (NAHMS) the income from the sale of cull animals provides the beef cow-calf producer with 15 to 20 percent of their gross herd revenue.  The Beef Improvement Federation defines culling as the process of eliminating less productive or less desirable cattle from a herd.  Culling is used by cattle producers to improve herd productivity and efficiency.  The sale of market cows and bulls accounts for 25% of all beef consumed in the U.S.

Beef producers must realize the importance of market cows since they contribute value to the industry.  Market cows and bulls contribute much more to the industry than just ground beef.  Whole muscle products are manufactured and marketed in family-type steak houses.  Roast beef sandwiches and “Philly steak” sandwiches are products that also result from non-fed beef.

Once the importance of culling and the percentage contributed to the total beef supply are appreciated, the cattle producer can use methods to improve their management and income.  First, it is important to establish strategic culling methods that allow a producer to identify reasons to cull an individual based on production and economics.  Second, producers must understand and consider quality assurance issues.  Third, producers must establish management practices for those identified cull cows and bulls.  Producers must understand what determines the value of culls and decide when and how to market those animals.

The profit gained from the sale of cull animals is very dependent on the quality assurance practices used by the producer.  Cattle producers must do a quality job of producing, transporting, and marketing their cows and bulls.  To help those involved with the beef industry increase their profits, the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association uses check off dollars to operate the Beef Quality Assurance program.  This program is designed to help producers produce safe, wholesome beef that provides a great beef eating experience every time.  The program examined the impact of culls through the 1994 National Market Cow and Bull Quality Audit.  The main objective of this audit was to identify quality problems and identify targets for desired quality by the year 2004.  In 1999, the National Market Cow and Bull Quality Audit was also conducted as a follow up to the 1994 audit.  This allowed the industry to see the progress achieved and set targets for the year 2009.

The 1999 National Market Cow and Bull Quality Audit was conducted in three phases.  Phase I consisted of face to face interviews with experts in the industry in order to identify the most frequent quality problems.  Phase II of the audit was to examine cows and bulls at the packing plants.  Researchers examined the holding pens, the slaughter floor, and the chill coolers.  Phase III of the audit had researchers, industry leaders, packers, processors, restaurateurs, and cattle producers meeting to compare results to the 1994 audit.  They also developed strategies to help reduce quality defects and improve the quality, consistency, and competitiveness of cows and bulls.
 

These issues all result in economic loss to the industry; however, some of these problems are of greater concern.  Antibiotic residues and birdshot are of extreme importance due to potential food safety implications.  These and other issues can be reduced by producers using better management and appropriate culling methods.

In conclusion quality assurance must be used in the production management and marketing of cows and bulls in order to maintain the highest profits possible for all segments of the beef industry.  Quality control guidelines are easy for producers to use and adhere to.  Most of the guidelines simply require good common sense.  Producers must think of their cows and bulls as part of the food supply and treat them accordingly. 

Some quality control points require only slight changes in current management practices ( eg. giving injections in the neck instead of the hip); reading the withdrawal time and not selling until the time has passed is an easy management practice to adopt; locating brands high on the hip instead of on the rib cage prevents damage to the more valuable areas of the hide.  The proper care and nutrition of cattle can also save value.  Cattle should have enough to eat in order to maintain a reasonable amount of condition.  When producers allow cattle to become emaciated, bruising occurs much easier and more frequent.  Bruises were the most frequent quality problem identified by packers and there were about 5 times more bruises on cows than on bulls.  Bruising can also be reduced greatly by using good dehorning practices.  Producers should use quality assurance and follow the recommendations provided by the quality audits, which were to manage, monitor, and market correctly.

The three largest quality losses in market cows and bulls are excess external fat, inadequate muscling, and whole cattle/carcass condemnation.  With an improvement in management techniques, these quality losses can be minimized or even eliminated.  Using the seven strategies outline in the National Market Cow and Bull Quality Audit, the value of non-fed beef cattle can be improved.

The final recommendations are:

• MANAGE non-fed cattle to minimize defects and quality deficiencies.
• MONITOR the health and condition of market cows and bulls.
• MARKET in a timely manner and more expeditiously in terms of timing/season, to lessen disabled cattle, to lessen ocular neoplasia, to lessen lameness, and to lessen emaciation.

1. Minimize comdenations by marketing cattle with physical disorders in a timely manner
2. Improve the end product by marketing cattle before they get too fat/lean, too heavy,
3. too thinly muscled/emaciated.
4. Decrease hide damage with parasite control practices and new methods of permanent identification.
5. Reduce bruises by dehorning, correcting deficiencies in facilities and transportation equipment and by improving handling.
6. Improve beef safety by encouraging practices that reduce bacterialcontamination of carcasses.
7. Prevent residues and injection-site leasions in cattle by ensuring resposible administration and withdrawal times of all animal health products.
8. Encourage on-farm euthanasia of disabled cattle and those with advanced cancer eye.

The FDA has the responsibility for determining the market status of animal drugs based in part upon whether or not it is possible to prepare “adequate directions for use” under which a layperson can use the drugs safely and effectively.  The 2 basic classes of drugs available to livestock producers are over-the-counter (OTC) and prescription (Rx) drugs.  A drug which has significant potential for toxicity in humans or animals (or other harmful effects), which may have a unique method of use, or which requires other special considerations for its use is usually labeled as a prescription drug.  Such products can be used or dispensed only by or on the order of a licensed veterinarian, and the label must bear the legend:  “Caution: Federal law restricts this drug to use by or on the order of a licensed veterinarian.”

Extra-Label Use of Drugs
OTC drugs can be purchased from multiple sources and must be used as directed on the label.  For example, most procaine penicillin G products are labeled for use at 1 cc/cwt and are given intramuscularly (IM).  So, a 600-pound calf would get 6 cc IM.  Producers are not allowed to change the dose or give it by any other route, such as subcutaneously (SQ).  OTC products must be used exactly as labeled.

“Extra-label use” is defined as the,“actual or intended use of a drug in a manner that is not in accordance with the label.”  Under the provisions of the Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act of 1994, the FDA recognized the professional judgment of veterinarians, and allows the extra-label use of drugs (either OTC or Rx) by veterinarians under certain conditions.  Extra-label use is limited to situations when the health of an animal is threatened or suffering and death may result from failure to treat and only by or under the supervision of a veterinarian.  Veterinarians may only consider using drugs (OTC or Rx) in an extra-label manner when the following conditions apply

1. There is no approved drug that is labeled for such use and that contains the same active ingredient in the required dosage form and concentration, or a currently approved and labeled drug is clinically ineffective for its intended use (for example: drug resistant bacterial infections).

2. Prior to using or dispensing a drug in an extra-label manner, the veterinarian must:

• Make a careful diagnosis and evaluation of the conditions for which the drug is to be used;
• Establish a substantially extended withdrawal period prior to marketing of milk, meat, eggs, or other products;
• Institute procedures to assure that the identity of the treated animal(s) is carefully maintained; and
• Take appropriate measures to assure that the assigned withdrawal times are met and that no illegal drug residues occur in any food-producing animal subjected to extra-label treatment

• The name and address of the prescribing veterinarian
• The name of the active ingredients(s);
• Directions for use including identity of the animal being treated, dosage, frequency and duration of treatment,and route of administration;
• Any cautionary statements specified by the veterinarian; and
• The veterinarian's specified withdrawal time.

• The veterinarian has assumed the responsibility for making clinical judgments regarding the health of the animal(s) and the need for medical treatment, and the client has agreed to follow the veterinarian's instructions
• The veterinarian has sufficient knowledge of the animal(s) to initiate at least a general or preliminary diagnosis of the medical condition of the animal(s). This means that the veterinarian has recently seen and is personally acquainted with the keeping and care of the animal(s) by virtue of an examination of the animal(s), or by medically appropriate and timely visits to the premises where the animal(s) are kept.
• The veterinarian is readily available, or has arranged for emergency coverage, for follow-up evaluation in the event of adverse reactions or failure of the treatment regimen.

The privilege of extra-label use of drugs is not permitted for extra-label use of drugs in or on animal feeds.  A veterinarian cannot use or prescribe drugs for use in feed in any manner except for the approved use and at the approved dosage.   Extra-label use of drugs in treating food-producing animals for improving rate of weight gain, feed efficiency, or other production purposes is also prohibited.  Some specific drugs are completely prohibited for extra-label use in food-producing animals including: chloramphenicol, clenbuterol, diethylstilbestrol, dimetridazole, ipronidazole, other nitroimidazoles, furazolidone, nitrofurazone, fluoroquinolones, and glycopeptides.

A withdrawal time (WD) may be indicated on the label of certain medications.  This is the period of time that must pass between the last treatment and the time the animal will be slaughtered or milk used for human consumption.  For example, if a medication with a 14-day withdrawal period was last given on August 1st, the withdraw would be completed on August 15th and that would be the earliest the animal could be harvested for human consumption.  It is important that you follow withdrawal time directions as given by the label or as prescribed by your veterinarian.  From the day you acquire your animals until the day they leave your care, you should maintain feed and treatment records.  This is important for the day-to-day care of your animal and for whomever might later purchase your animal.

Observe label directions and withdrawal times carefully.  When using drugs “extra-label,” work closely with the veterinarian on dosages and withdrawal times.  Never use an approved veterinary drug in an extra-label manner without consulting with the veterinarian.  Doing this without direction by a licensed veterinarian is an illegal act.

Unacceptable levels of drug residues detected in edible tissues collected at slaughter may result in traceback, quarantine and potential fines or jail time.  Substantial economic losses may result for the individual producer as well as negative publicity for the entire beef industry.  Producers are responsible for residue problems and should follow these three rules:

• Do not market animals for food until the withdrawal time listed on the label, or as prescribed by the veterinarian, has elapsed.

• Use only medications approved for cattle and exactly as the label directs or as prescribed by your veterinarian.

• If ever in doubt, rely on the Veterinarian/Client/Patient Relationship you have established with your veterinarian.  Consult your veterinarian with all questions and concerns.

Drugs, vaccines, implants, and other animal health products usually have specific storage requirements.  Some, but not all, require refrigeration, and all should be stored in a clean place where they cannot become dirty or contaminated.  Observe and obey the manufacturer’s recommended storage instructions for each product you use.  Where refrigeration is needed, be sure the refrigerator is kept clean and is located in a safe, clean place that is not likely to be overheated or contaminated by dirt or manure.  Animal health products should be stored away from the feed ingredient or mixing area unless they are regularly mixed feed additives.   Storage of bottles of partially used medication or vaccine is discouraged because they may have become contaminated and could cause infections or tissue reactions if re-used.  Purchase of animal health supplies in containers holding the number of doses typically used in a day of processing animals is encouraged.

• READ THE LABEL

• Purchase vaccines in containers holding the number of doses appropriate for the task at hand.  Storing partially used containers may lead to infections at injection sites and result in ineffectiveness of the vaccine

• Never use an outdated drug or vaccine.

• Use transfer needles to reconstitute vaccines.  Place one end of the needle into the sterile liquid, and the other in the bottle containing the freeze-dried cake of vaccine.  There should be a vacuum that immediately pulls the liquid down.  If not, discard the vaccine, as it may not be effective.

• Modified live vaccine begins to degrade, or lose effectiveness, after about an hour (Don’t mix too much vaccine at one time).  Direct sunlight also degrades the products; so keep vaccines and syringes in a cooler while working cattle.  When using a large bottle of vaccine, mix thoroughly at first and gently shake the bottle from time to time.

• Do not use the same syringes to inject modified live and killed products.  A trace of killed product can harm the effectiveness of the modified live product.

• Clean the top of the vaccine bottle before inserting needles.  Don’t put the needle you’re using to inject animals back into the vaccine bottle to avoid contaminating the vaccine.  Change needles every 10 to 15 uses.  Discard any bent needles.

• Never mix vaccines or other animal health products.  Mixing unlike products can destroy their effectiveness.  Use only approved combinations.

• A dangerous practice is to store veterinary drugs in the feed room. This is especially true for pesticides that could be accidentally mixed into a feed ration.