Effect On Incoming Cattle: The weight loss of cattle during transport is commonly called shrink. There are two types of shrink. One is exudative, which is the loss of urine and feces. The second type of shrink is tissue loss. Tissue loss is the loss of fluid from the cells and cattle require more time to regain this type of shrink. The following are five factors that affect amount of shrink:
1. Time 2. Distance 3. Age 4. Sex 5. Type-Condition.
The most critical factor is time in transit. Therefore, truckers should deliver cattle as soon as possible. The following are some estimates for shrink with respect to time (Fox et al., 1985):
| Hours in a Moving truck | %Shrink | Days required to Recover Payweight |
| 1 2-8 8-16 16-24 24-32 |
2 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 |
0 4-8 8-16 16-24 24-30 |
Distance is included as a factor because some people think in terms of distance rather than time. One estimate is a 3% shrink for the first 100 miles and .5% to 1% for each additional 100 miles.
Age, sex, and type-condition are interrelated because the real factor is fat composition of the animal. The fatter the cattle are, the less shrink encountered. This is because fat contains less water than muscle. Older cattle tend to have more fat than younger animals. Heifers are usually fatter than steers of the same age. Larger frame cattle have a higher lean to fat ratio than medium frame cattle of the same age. Of course health of the cattle will also have an effect.
Preventing Shrink: You may not be able to prevent shrink in cattle that you purchase some distance from your feedlot but the following practices may reduce the amount of shrink and minimize the accompanying stress (Brownson, 1973):
Truck Space Requirements For Calves
| Average
Weight |
Number of Calves per
Running foot of truck floor (92 inch truck width) |
| 200lbs 300 400 450 |
2.2 1.6 1.2 1.1 |
(Grandin, 1988)
The truck driver's shipping invoices should be checked before unloading the truck. When the cattle arrive that are fresh, give the buyer a call and let him know you're pleased. If you receive a problem load, discuss this with the order buyer so they know of the problem and can prevent such problems in the future.. Providing written specifications will eliminate many misunderstandings. Records of purchase weight, delivery weight, and numbers of dead or down on the truck should be available when talking with the buyer about a set of cattle.
Process cattle within 24-36 hours of arrival. One option is to process them on the day of arrival. A second option is to allow them to eat hay and drink water, rest overnight and then process them the next morning. Use the latter option with stressed cattle or postpone the most stressful procedures if cattle are especially stressed or evidence indicates they may be incubating impending disease. Temperatures of cattle just off the truck are not reliable indicators of illness (Lofgreen, 1988). To minimize stress, move cattle to their pens at their pace.
Process cattle in small groups so they don't have to wait too long before going though the chute (Ritchie et al, 1990). During hot weather, process in the morning or evening. Evidence from Meat Animal Research Center in Nebraska indicates that body temperatures do not return to normal until 1:00-2:00 AM. They suggest processing at 2-3:00 AM if cattle are heat stressed. Do not over- use electric prods or cause excitement. Designate animals with temperatures over 104 degrees F as sick. Temperatures may not be possible to take on all cattle, but take temperatures on cattle that appear stressed.
Don't use large needles that result in leakage of vaccine out of the injection sites (SubQ: 16 or 17 gauge, 1/2-3/4 inch long; IM: 16 or 18 gauge, 1-1.5 inches long). Sanitation should be practiced in the processing area. Use injections sites located around the neck region.
Newly arrived calves do not readily eat upon arrival in the feedlot. On day one in the feedlot, only 22% of the calves may eat. By day three, approximately 40% may still not be eating. And on day 10, an average of 15% of the cattle may not be eating. Starter rations should be fed for 3-4 weeks after arrival.
WATER: The best location for water troughs is along the fenceline where cattle tend to walk upon arriving in a new pen. Clean waterers daily for the first 5 days with newly arrived cattle. Cleaning waters is desirable plus it makes noise so cattle can locate the water. Adding an electrolyte solution to the water troughs that calves drink from immediately after being unloaded at the feedlot may be an excellent way to guard against dehydration.
HAY: Good quality, long stem grass hay that is free of dust, mold, and weeds should be placed in the feedbunk or on the apron the first few days calves are in the pen in order to entice them to the bunk. Also beginning with the first day in the lot, the receiving ration should be sprinkled on top of the grass hay. Use between 0.5% to .75% of the calf's body weight to start out with (Wagner et al., 1992). After the first day, reduce the amount of hay offered and increase the amount of starter ration fed. The objective is to get cattle on their starter ration as soon as possible. This may only take 1-2 days for nonstressed calves and may take about a week for stressed calves. Alfalfa has a high quality protein but may cause bloat problems. A mixture of alfalfa hay and grass hay would be more acceptable. Grinding hay and including it directly in the receiving ration is preferred. However, long stem hay should be fed in the ration only during the first 2-3 days after arrival.
CONCENTRATES: Coarsely ground or rolled grain is preferred over whole grain during the receiving period (Wagner et al., 1992). The actual starter ration should contain from 60% to 80% concentrates. If cattle are destined for a high roughage program, the starter ration should be about 40-50% concentrates. Another option for cattle destined for grass pasture is a hay diet with 2 pounds of a 40% protein pellet. If silage is to be part of the receiving program, it should be provided at least 2 times a day to prevent it from deteriorating in the bunk. Use of grass pastures for recently weaned calves has been successful for some operators, however, early detection and treatment of sickness may be more difficult.
PROTEIN: The starter ration should contain about 16% crude protein on a dry matter basis, depending on intake. Dry matter intake is often less than 1% of body weight during the first week of arrival. Diet concentrations of protein (and other nutrients) need to be increased based on feed intake level in order to meet requirements. Recent work by the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center (OARDC), Wooster has suggested that up to 23% crude protein (dry matter basis) during the first week, comprised partially of a by-pass protein, can improve gains during the first week (Fluharty and Loerch, 1992). Animal sources of by-pass protein may be less palatable which means that a flavor enhancer such as molasses may need to be added. One thing to keep in mind when feeding receiving diets containing 70-80% concentrates, and high levels of crude protein is that these diets are highly digestible. Therefore, stools will be much more loose than if the calves were being fed a diet with a high roughage content that was less digestible. The loose stools clear up in approximately two weeks, and should not be confused with a diarrhea condition resulting in dehydration. Calves are not initially capable of utilizing urea or other nonprotein nitrogen sources very effectively. In addition, as urea decomposes in the bunk, as sometimes occurs in hot weather, it gives off an ammonia odor. Possibly, urea can be added up to 0.5% of diet dry matter in receiving diets, but higher levels may depress feed intake.
MINERALS: Potassium content should be at least 1.0%. Studies by Hutcheson (1990) have suggested 1.4% potassium in the diet for cattle that have suffered excessive shrink of greater than 5%. Supplementation of potassium can be done through mineral supplements, alfalfa hay or dehydrated alfalfa pellets. Supplemental zinc may have some benefits (350-390 mg/hd/day). Under most circumstances providing trace mineral salt to the cattle at the rate of 0.5% of dry matter will meet their trace mineral requirements, excluding potassium and zinc. Copper and zinc levels should be evaluated for calves previously grazing tall-fescue pastures (Brazle). Mixing trace mineral salt in the ration is preferred over providing it free choice to assure the cattle are consuming the needed minerals. Chelated minerals have high levels of bioavailability and being evaluated for their use in meeting mineral requirements (Chester-Jones and Di Costanzo, 1994). The elevated levels of minerals and vitamins in receiving rations should be discontinued after feed intake has reached normal levels. These elevated "receiving" levels are considered extra label use by the FDA in regular growing-finishing rations (Wagner, 1993).
VITAMINS: Provide about 2000-3000 International Units (IU) of vitamin A per pound of dry matter. Receiving diets containing between 50 and 100 IU of vitamin E per pound may be adequate for most circumstances. Supplementing vitamin E through the diet appears to be more beneficial than by injection intramuscularly during processing of cattle (Rust, 1992).
The B complex vitamins are generally produced in sufficient quantities in the rumen and use of B vitamins has not consistently improved performance. However, if cattle have been off feed for some time, supplemental B vitamins, particularly niacin and thiamin may be beneficial (Wagner et al., 1992). Lee et al. (1985) observed that calves fed supplemental B vitamins (600 mg niacin, 200 mg thiamin and 750 mg choline per head) plus vitamin E gained more weight than calves fed vitamin E alone. Hutcheson (1990) observed a response to 125 ppm of niacin for healthy calves and 250 ppm for stressed calves.
Nutrient Recommendations Receiving Stressed Calves
| Dry Matter, % NEm, mcal/lb NEg, mcal/lb Calcium, % Phosphorus, % Potassium, % Magnesium, % Crude Protein,% Vitamin A, IU/lb |
80-85 .70-.75 .45-.55 .6-.8 .3-.5 1.0-1.4 .2-.3 16a 2000-3000 |
Sodium, % Sulfur, % Copper, ppm Iron, ppm Manganese, ppm Zinc, ppm Cobalt, ppm Selenium, ppm Vitamin E, IU/day |
. |
.2-.30 8-.15 10-20 100-200 20-40 75-100 .1-.2 .3 50-100 |
aSome benefits may be realized by phase feeding diets which provide 20-23% CP week 1, 17% CP week 2 and 14% CP week 3 (Protein concentration decreases as intake increases to provide the same amount of protein daily.
IONOPHORES AND OTHER PRODUCTS: A step-up program (starting with 125 mg/hd/day) is recommended for monensin (RumensinTM) if intake at normal levels is a problem. A similar step-up procedure (150 mg/hd/day) could be used with lasalocid (BovatecTM) if intake is a problem at normal levels. There is general acceptance that Bovatec is more palatable than Rumensin. Ionophores should not be included in receiving diets for weaned calves until calves are eating well. The use of ionophores in yearling cattle receiving diets may be useful for the reduction of rumen acidosis and bloat. Producers should be aware that some new products have come into the market place. The products are bambermycins (GainProTM), laidlomycin propionate (CattlystTM), and virginiamycin (VmaxTM), as of the printing of this manual.
COCCIDIOSTATS: Coccidiosis is characterized by low appetite and watery, sometimes bloody, diarrhea. If coccidiosis prevention is desired, add an anticoccidial to the diet (DeccoxTM, AmproliumTM, and BovatecTM, RumensinTM, etc.). Coccidiostats cannot cure the disease once an outbreak of bloody scours has occurred. Consider the concerns expressed above for use of ionophores in starting rations for weaned calves.
ANTIBIOTICS: Oral antibiotics may reduce sickness and increase performance. However, the primary tool for reducing shipping fever is a good health program. Several common feed antibiotics have proven effective, including oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline-sulfamethazine (AS-700). They are only effective if consumed in recommended amounts.
An alternative to feeding antibiotics, is injection of antibiotics at the time of processing (Rust, 1992). Highly stressed cattle will benefit from medication at processing time. If 10-20% of the cattle have been treated for respiratory distress, mass medication may be beneficial.
BUFFERS: The main benefit of sodium bicarbonate isn't for moving cattle more quickly to full feed; it is for preventing problems when bringing cattle up on difficult feeds. When used in rations of wheat, bakery wastes or other "volatile" forms of starch, sodium bicarbonate moderates rumen pH. Once cattle are on full feed, however, the buffer's effect declines. A suggested dosage would be 1 oz/hd/day. Higher levels may increase sickness (Brazle).
PROBIOTICS: Response to these products have been inconsistent. Cattle that have encountered significant stress during transport show a greater response to these products. In general, cattle shipped more than 400 miles are more likely to demonstrate a benefit to probiotic therapy (Rust, 1992).
DEWORMING: Depending upon origin, consult your veterinarian concerning the best product to use. Most studies indicate a benefit to routine deworming of feeder cattle unless cattle history and/or fecal egg counts indicate otherwise (Kuhl). However, egg counts are a poor predictor of worm load. History is more valuable. If in doubt, worm once at the beginning of the feeding period.
CHROMIUM: The element chromium has been shown to be of some benefit for stressed calves. Moonsie-Shageer and Mowat (1993) observed that chromium supplementation improved performance and immune function of stressed calves fed a corn silage-based diet (11.03% CP) that contained 0.16 ppm of chromium from a chromium yeast culture. More research is being conducted to clarify the possible use of chromium.
Yearling cattle can normally be considered to be "bunk broke." Therefore there may be more problems with an over consumption of the starter diet rather than under consumption, which is a problem with younger calves. Pritchard (1993) suggested starting to feed the finishing diet the second day after arrival at 2.3x maintenance level, increasing this to 2.5, 2.7 and 2.9x maintenance, at weekly intervals. Ionophore inclusion, at full dose, is much less of a problem for yearlings and may actually help moderate intake. Protein levels of 12-13% should be adequate.
Vaccines are commonly administered to calves entering a feeding program. However, the bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC) is a complex syndrome that involves the interactions of a number of viruses, bacteria, and stress factors. The very number of different vaccination programs and vaccines available suggest that no one program, or possibly even any program, is completely satisfactory, in preventing BRDC or shipping fever. Vaccines should be viewed as tools in our prevention of BRDC, and it should be realized that they have limitations.
Vaccination programs for the feedlot should be developed between the producer and veterinarian and consider the farm's goals, expected outcomes, and cost/benefit. Some general points may be useful for consideration:
The ideal animal entering the feedlot would already be immune to the common pathogens that cause disease. This is usually not the case, and the animals status and potential to respond to a vaccine are influenced by such things as:
Usually 3 general groups of cattle, with respect to vaccine need, will enter feeding programs.: 1) pre-weaning conditioned, cattle, 2) fresh, farm-origin or auction market calves, and 3) stressed or "stale" calves.
Preconditioned or preweaning conditioned calves.
These animal will have been given various vaccines and treatment as dictated by differing programs. "Certification" and accompanying paperwork may increase confidence that these procedures were performed as desired. Adjustments to the feeding of concentrates and weaning may be as important, or more important, than vaccinations. If animals are truly vaccinated according to manufacturer's recommendations prior to weaning or stresses of shipment, additional vaccine on arrival to the feedlot may be unwarranted and uneconomical. This group of calves has the greatest potential to receive benefit from vaccines.
It has been suggested that vaccination of calves against viral and bacterial agents 30 days before sale will reduce calf weaning weight by about 2%, but compared with non-vaccinates, may reduce sickness by about 10-20% and death by 20% or more with similar feed conversions and gain. This group of animals may be desirable for feeder calf purchasers who are risk averse and who have little opportunity to spread risk over large numbers. Likewise, the producer who retains ownership of his calves through the feeding period may be able to capture all the health benefits of these programs and fine tune the extra feed cost and management considerations to limit or eliminate the potential losses incurred in the cow/calf side of production.
Fresh cattle, no vaccination history.
In spite of its widespread practice, argument exists about the value of vaccination of cattle on arrival at the feedlot, and a controlled study is difficult because control of the variables involved is troublesome. Existing independent controlled research results have been mixed and do not clearly support a positive recommendation for routine vaccination. Vaccines may prevent the development of disease later in the feeding period, however, the onset of disease often precedes the development of an effective immune response. Vaccines that stimulate a booster response in calves with inadequate vaccine status or previous disease exposure or those which stimulate a local protective response (such as nasal IBR vaccine) may be helpful. Some studies suggest that vaccination on arrival with leukotoxin-based pasteurella vaccines may be of benefit in the early post arrival period.
Stressed cattle.
Highly stressed feeder cattle often show signs of illness on arrival at the feedlot or shortly thereafter. The overall appearance of the cattle, history, and presence of temperatures of over 104oF in some of the cattle after they have rested from transportation and unloading (12-24 hrs) may indicate impending disease problems. The reason for waiting to take rectal temperatures is that temperatures taken immediately after cattle are unloaded may be misleading. On hot, sunny days, rectal temperatures can increase as much as .5°F/hour, and on cold, wet days can decrease .5°F/hour for every hour they are standing and waiting to be processed. The best time to take rectal temperatures is prior to feeding in the early morning. Opinions vary considerably on use of vaccine in these cattle, and controlled research results on vaccine effectiveness in this group are scarce. Generally, it is wise not to add to the stress of these animals with vaccine and other processing. Our basic understanding of the immune system suggests that these cattle are unlikely to respond as desired. Experience and consultation with a veterinarian will dictate which procedures, other than vaccination, should be performed near arrival and which should be postponed.
Core vaccination usage - one more opinion
The agents most commonly associated with the BRDC in the feedlot are: infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus (IBR), parainfluenza (PI3), bovine virus diarrhea (BVD), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), and Pasteurella hemolytica and Pasteurella multocida (bacteria). In addition, several other viruses, bacteria, and mycoplasmas have been incriminated. Not all of these agents will be present in a given group of animals, and vaccines do not exist for all of them. It is accepted that the usual course of events is for viruses to infect the animal and damage the respiratory tract lining and/or to reduce the calf's vigor with subsequent bacterial invasion and multiplication.
Some research has suggested that IBR virus and Pasteurella hemolytica can cause significant disease without the aid of other infectious agents. A new live P. hemolytica and P. multocida may be effective with one injection. It is certain that, experimentally, these agents alone can cause significant disease. Vaccines for these agents should ideally be given prior to exposure or stress, however, vaccination on arrival may be of some benefit. Newer vaccines for Pasteurella hemolytica appear to offer significant benefit if cattle have time to respond. Two doses of leukotoxin-based Pasteurella hemolytica vaccines are usually recommended, and 2 doses of killed IBR vaccine are needed for adequate protection against these agents. Nasally administered, live IBR vaccines have been available for a long time and appear to be safe. They have an advantage over intramuscularly administered vaccines in that they stimulate a local immune response in the nasal passages where the field virus initially reproduces, and the response may be non-specific and rapid enough to offer some protection against infection by other viruses.
Infections with BVD virus are usually mild in a normal animal. Their usual effect is to depress immune function temporarily. However, some strains exist which are very virulent and cause serious disease. At this writing, it is unclear whether available vaccines offer good protection against all strains. This virus should be included in preconditioning programs, but the benefit of administration on arrival at the feedlot is open to debate. It is safe to recommend that cattle which have been on feed for some time and are well started should be protected by NOT adding new cattle to their pen or group to avoid exposure regardless of vaccination status.
BRSV and PI3 viruses damage the respiratory lining and aid in establishing bacterial infections. Reports of serious outbreaks of respiratory disease caused by BRSV have been difficult to duplicate under controlled conditions with virus taken from sick or dead calves. We do not yet understand the complete pathogenesis of this disease. Work in other species suggests that complex virus/bacterial interactions, involving bacteria which are not normally considered pathogens, may play a part some viral infections. Vaccines for these viruses may be beneficial if they can be given prior to exposure or stress of sale and shipment.
Vaccines for the diseases caused by the Clostridia group (blackleg, malignant edema, enterotoxemia) have been available for a long time ("5-way", "7-way", etc). Evidence now exists to show that significant tissue damage from intramuscular injection of these products will occur. Recently, reduced average daily gain was noted following repeated injections of these products in some groups of calves suggesting a negative effect from their intramuscular use. In addition, in one recent review of the causes of death in calves suddenly dying in a large feedlot, enterotoxemia was not shown to be causal in a significant number of animals. And lastly, the true cause of "sudden death" in feedlots, long suspected to be caused by a Clostridia spp., is not yet really known. These findings suggest that repeated vaccination with "7-way" vaccines may offer little benefit and may do harm. If cattle enter the feedlot with a previous history of vaccination for these diseases or if it is likely that they have received vaccines for them, there is little reason to recommend boosters, especially repeated ones, following arrival. These vaccines should be given subcutaneously if so labelled
The field of vaccine development is wide and the competition for market share in the cattle industry is keen. Vaccines of today are significantly better than those available just a few years ago. New technologies and better understanding of disease development are helping us develop more effective vaccines. However, vaccines remain only one tool in our attempt to maximize feedlot animal health.
Larger feedlots may want to consider having separate facilities for sick cattle. A rule of thumb is to have enough sick pens to hold 2-5% of the feedlot capacity (Baker et al., 1983).
Loss of appetite is a common symptom of most sick cattle (Laudert, 1991). It can be difficult to get sick animals to eat. In general, provide a clean, fresh feed that will encourage consumption.
Feed intake is highly correlated with water intake. Water sources should be cleaned daily to prevent build-up of unpalatable materials. Heat water or remove ice during cold weather. Troughs may need to be drained periodically in hot weather.
Small quantities of medium to high quality long stem hay should be offered daily, in addition to whatever roughage is included in the mixed rations. Hay should be offered in a feeder or bunk to prevent contamination.
The mixed rations should be blended to contain about 30% roughage. No more than 10-15% of the total mixed ration should come from silage. Dusty feeds such as finely chopped or ground hay and finely processed grains should be avoided. Molasses or liquid feeds can be added to the rations to reduce fines and dustiness.
It is recommended that sick cattle be fed more often than once per day. The act of feeding may stimulate eating behavior. Do not force sick cattle to clean-up stale, wet feed.
Hospital pens should be cleaned frequently and bedded if possible. Competition at the bunk should be minimized by allowing 18 to 24 inches of space per head (Griffin et al., 1993).
Cattle that appear to be recovering from a sickness might be moved to another pen if competition at the feed bunk with the very sick becomes a problem. Cattle in this convalescent pen should be allowed to consume a ration similar to that being fed to the healthy cattle.
Hospital rations can be formulated with nutrient specifications similar to receiving rations for stressed calves. Because sick cattle have reduced digestion in the rumen, they cannot utilize the same level of urea or other nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) sources as healthy cattle can. Often sick cattle have not been on feed long enough to adapt to NPN and this adaptability is quickly lost in cattle which go off feed.
Salt and minerals should be offered free choice in the bunk in addition to that provided in the mixed rations. Since sick cattle are deficient in trace minerals, it is best to offer a trace mineralized salt. Minerals should be fed in the loose form as cattle are less likely to stand and lick blocks when sick. Only small amounts of both should be offered at a time to maintain freshness.