The feedstuffs available to Ohio feedlot operators is vast and varied. Therefore, the feedstuffs discussed in this section should only be considered a partial list.
Clean, fresh water should be supplied at all times. Drinkable water is usually between 40 and 60oF (Boyles et al., 1988). Steers that have access to cool drinking water during hot weather will gain 0.3 to 0.4 pounds more per day than those drinking warm water. Occasionally check waterers with heaters to detect a "runaway."
Dip a thermometer into the water but do not allow it to rest on the bottom. Touching the heated bottom of the pan can result in higher temperatures than actual water temperature. Check the temperature over several cold days. Water temperatures of at least 40oF should minimize mechanical problems and maintain animal performance.
Stray electric current in a self-heating trough can reduce water consumption and thus reduce feed intake. Shut off the electricity and check the inside for rodent nests. Make sure the connections are dry and there is a clean, tight ground.
Outbreaks of urinary calculi or water belly can be associated with weather conditions. Cold weather may reduce water intake, which reduces water flow through the bladder and kidneys. This reduced water flow allows kidney stones to develop. Hard water does not cause urinary calculi problems but may be a factor if the hardness affects water palatability.
ld never be placed under the surface of the water in an animal watering tank or in a chemical sprayer tank. The tank might fill over the outlet of the hose, resulting in a loss of water pressure and back siphoning when a hose or faucet is turned off. The entire water system may then become contaminated by impurities.
Dirty water is a source for disease organisms, and disease can spread rapidly if animals drink from the same trough. Sick animals should be isolated and the trough disinfected and cleaned. Sprinkling baking soda in the fountain periodically may reduce algae growth.
Create an elevated base around waters. Make the base wide enough so animals can easily put their front legs on it, but not their hind legs. when they are drinking. Animals will not normally place only their hind legs on this base and therefore will not defecate in the water. Make the surface rough so they will not slip.
Whole Shelled Corn: Dry whole shelled corn has been equal to or slightly superior to ground or rolled corn in high concentrate beef cattle rations. Processing may be considered when the rations contains 20% or more roughage. It is questionable if dry corn should be processed unless at least 20 pounds of corn silage are fed daily, or more than 23% of the ration dry matter is roughage. Whole corn appears to have a roughage or "scratching effect" which helps maintain healthy tissue in the rumen wall of cattle and lowers the incidence of liver abscesses that are often a problem when cattle are fed high concentrate rations (Sewell, 1991).
There is also a "moisture content level" which should be considered when using whole shelled corn. If corn is less than 12% moisture, it probably should be processed. Some nutritionist have recommended a moisture level range of 13-15%. Dry growing conditions may cause some corn to be less than 12% moisture. Some larger feedlots commonly use a surfactant (an acid product) and water mixture to moisten the grain. The surfactant dissolves the grain's waxy outer layer, allowing more water absorption (Roybal, 1987). Smaller feedlot operators might consider adding 3-5% water during mixing to dry, flinty corn.
Whole-shelled corn is well suited for use in self-feeders. This system usually does not contain any roughage. A pelleted supplement is mixed with the corn and fed in self-feeders. A free choice salt-mineral mix is also available. Usually, digestive problems are not encountered if cattle are comfortable and close to feed and water at all times. Occasionally, problems arise during a winter storm due to changes in intake. Providing about 1-2 pounds of roughage might be considered in these situations.
Bunk management is critical with whole shelled corn. If cattle are allowed to get hungry, they are more likely to gulp the feed, rather than chew it, and utilization will be poorer (Roybal, 1987). However, do not allow old, stale feed or fines to accumulate in the feed bunk since that will also initiate fluctuations in intake. There should be about 5-10 inches of bunk space per head in self-feeders (minimum of 3 inches), depending on age and weight of cattle. Adjust the opening in self-feeders so that only a small amount of feed is in trough at all times.
Processed Corn: Processing corn can improve feed utilization in some circumstances. Processing corn can improve the mixing characteristics of the ration if other ingredients are in the meal form. The various feedstuffs in a ration are less likely to separate if they are of a similar particle size. Grinding or rolling corn are two of the least expensive methods for processing corn. Breaking the grain into 3 to 4 particles or grits is acceptable. No particular advantage has been observed in blending whole and ground corn (Messman et al., 1989). However, this might be considered if the ground grain is too fine and bloat-acidosis problems are prevalent. Steam flaking is another option but is not commonly done by small farmer-feeders.
Certain grains, such as barley and wheat, require processing prior to feeding. The main thing to remember is to keep the end-product as coarse as possible. It is better to have a few whole kernels, which may only be partially digested, than to have a fine, dusty feed which can lead to bloat-acidosis problems and low feed intake.
When to Harvest: At maturity, a visible black layer develops in the base of the kernel near where the kernel joins the cob (McGuggey and Lillman, 1976). At maturity, moisture content of the kernel is 30 to 35 percent or greater. A few cold nights or a heavy frost can cause black layer formation at higher moisture levels. Recommended moisture ranges for harvesting are 24 to 30 percent. Corn kernels will lose 1/2 to 1 percent moisture per day in the field when they reach this stage (Mader et al., 1983).
High Moisture Corn Storage: High moisture corn can be stored in the whole or ground form. Ground high moisture corn is normally stored in bunker or trench silos and whole high moisture corn is stored in upright, oxygen limiting silos (Mader et al., 1983). Ground or coarse rolled corn can be stored in upright silos. The large bagging systems can also be used for storage. High moisture feeds should be left in storage for 21 days before being fed.
Kernel Moisture, %
| Type of Silo | Ideal | Minimum | Maximum |
| Sealed Top unload Bagged Bunker |
27 30 27 30 |
20 22 20 25 |
33 35 35 35 |
(Bucholtz et al., 1992)
Breaking the kernel into 2 to 5 pieces will be adequate in concrete upright silos that are in good condition. Running the blower at a high rate of speed may be sufficient for processing. The kernels should be broken into 5 to 10 pieces for bunker silo storage. Look at the corn after bringing it in from the field to see how much more processing is needed. A 1/2 to 5/8-inch screen is about right for corn (Mader et al., 1983). In general the lower the moisture, the finer the grind.
Storage in Oxygen-Limiting Upright Silos: It is customary to store whole high moisture shelled corn in oxygen limiting silos. A breather bag may be included at the top of the silo to allow removal of grain creating a vacuum and to compensate for temperature changes. It is advisable to run out a small amount of grain after each load so as to establish a gravity flow pattern.
Storage in Bunker and Upright Silos: Conventional upright silos must be in good condition for high moisture grain. If in doubt, check with the manufacturer about extra bands for reinforcement. Seal the doors with plastic. If filling is interrupted, the surface should be temporarily covered. Seal the top of the silo with a plastic cap that is 1 to 2 feet larger than the circumference of the silo. In top unloading silos, modification of the unloader may be necessary to prevent the unloader from burying itself if the unloader was designed for use with silage.
Bunker silos should be covered with plastic. The plastic sheets should overlap and be sealed with dirt or gravel and then cover the entire plastic surface with tires. An alternative is to cover with a molasses-based material.
The removal rate during winter should be 2 to 3 inches per day. The rate may need to be greater than 4 inches during warmer weather to prevent spoilage.
Processing High Moisture Corn For Cattle: In high- or all-concentrate diets (greater than 80%), high moisture corn can be fed whole to beef cattle. Processing is at least questionable if the ration contains less than 15% roughage. Normally, a number of the originally stored whole kernels are broken during storage. High moisture corn should be processed by a coarse grind or roll if fed in medium- to low-concentrate diets. Fine grinding can actually hinder performance.
Feeding Management: High moisture corn ferments faster than dry corn in the animal's rumen. Therefore, there may be a greater risk of going off-feed, acidosis, or founder with high moisture corn than with dry corn. Finishing rations should have roughage levels of 10 to 15% on a dry matter basis so as to prevent potential problems if there is any processing. Ideally, it is desirable for the corn and the roughage to be mixed together to avoid sorting and digestive upsets. A course chop (greater than 1/4 inch) is suggested for hay or silage. Bunk management is critical to reduce fluctuating intake and acidosis problems. Because of limited bunk life, high moisture is not well suited to self-feeding systems.
In very rare cases, more problems with "water belly" or urinary calculi will occur with high moisture corn than with dry corn due to differences in availability of phosphorus. You should probably maintain at least 0.7% calcium in the diet. A supplement of 0.5% ammonium chloride can be used once the problems in calcium and salt intake have been resolved and if a problem still exists.
Blending slower fermenting grains, such as dry corn, with high moisture corn can reduce acidosis and improve feed efficiency. Nebraska research suggests that a grain mix of 50-75% high moisture corn and 50-25% dry rolled corn is more efficient than a 100% high moisture corn or 100% dry rolled corn grain mix. Mixtures of these corn types can improve feed efficiency and gain by 3-4%. The greatest improvement will be during the first 21-28 days.
Barley is an excellent feed for cattle and may be substituted for corn in various rations. Feeding values of barley for cattle are 88% to 90% that of corn. Feed barley frequently contains protein in excess of 13.5% (As fed). One can normally feed less protein supplement when feeding barley compared to corn. The economic value of barley compared to corn should take into account the cost of protein supplement. Stained or discolored barley is discriminated against at the malting plant. The feed value, however, of the blemished grain is not compromised.
Fiber content will vary inversely with test weight. NRC (National Research Council) considers 36 lb. test weight barley (77% TDN) to be 7% lower in total digestible nutrients compared to normal barley 87% TDN, 48 lb test weight). Barley fiber has little value as a roughage factor.
It is important that barley be coarsely processed before it is fed to cattle. Whole barley is only about 80% as useful as rolled or ground barley. A common problem is to grind or roll the barley too fine. An adequate level of processing is to break the kernel into just 2 pieces and have some breaks in the kernel surface. Cattle may maintain more consistent feed intake patterns with maximum levels of barley not exceeding 70% of the ration. Additional grain can be provided from some slower fermenting grains. Novice producers may want to use lower levels (40-50%) until they gain experience.
Starting On Feed: Oats is an ideal grain for starting cattle of feed because of its high hull and fiber content. Many experienced cattlemen prefer to start weaned calves on oats as the only or major grain, gradually shifting over to higher-energy grains as the animals become adapted to grain consumption. Oats may constitute 50 to 70% of the grain mix while cattle are becoming accustomed to a full feed. The level of oats should be reduce over time to 0-30 percent of the diet. However, on an energy basis, oats are usually much more expensive than corn.
Processing Oats: Calves chew oat grain sufficiently well until approximately 8-10 months old. Little or no benefit is gained from processing oats prior to this time. Grinding oats is usually not required for young calves, unless the grain fed with the oats is also ground.
Bushel Weight and Energy Content: Oats quality and bushel test weight vary substantially among varieties, geographic location, growing season temperature and rainfall. Very high temperatures during the kernel filling and maturation period, incidence of certain plant diseases such as crownrust, and several other environmental factors can adversely affect oat grain quality. Information to date suggests little difference in energy value of varieties for ruminant animals due to variety alone. However, varietal differences associated with wide differences in bushel test weight suggest substantial differences in energy content.
USDA Grades of Oats
| U.S. No. 2 oats U.S. No. 1 oats Heavy oats Extra-heavy oats |
36 lbs/bushel plus 33 lbs/bushel plus 38-40 lbs/bushel 40 lbs/bushel plus |
Bushel test weight is closely related to energy content and inversely related to fiber content. Test weight is recognized as the only practical means outside the laboratory to describe quality variations in oats. For each pound bushel test weight less than 32 pounds, assume a 2.5% lower energy value. For each pound bushel test weight above 32 pounds, assume a 2% higher energy value per pound.
Wheat can be used to replace a part of the grain ration when protein prices are high and wheat is relatively cheap compared to other grains. As a general rule, limit wheat to 50% of the grain portion in finishing diets. However, some experienced feeders use larger amounts of wheat successfully.
Processing Wheat: Although the kernel must be cracked or broken, over processing will result in the production of many fines that are undesirable since the rate of wheat starch digestion in the rumen is very rapid. Therefore, an excessive amount of fine particles will cause generally low and erratic intakes, digestive upsets and poor performance. If wheat is dry-rolled, it should be rolled or ground as coarsely as possible while still breaking all the kernels. Rolling rather than grinding generally results in fewer fines. Steam flaking wheat can improve animal performance. Mixing grains should occur after grain processing rather than before. Wheat could more likely be processed with barley or oats than with corn.
Problems of Feeding Wheat: Once on full feed, feed should be kept before the cattle at all times. It is not advisable to change back and forth from wheat to other feed grains when feeding high concentrate rations. Wheat is a fast fermenting grain in the rumen. Problems of depressed feed intake, acidosis and abscessed livers have been reported. They are the basis for recommendations on limiting the amount of wheat in the ration, mixing it with other grains, and for feeding at least 15% roughage. The addition of ionophores has made it possible to reduce some of these digestive problems and feed higher levels of wheat.
Levels of wheat greater than 50% of grain portion of the diet have been fed when wheat is relatively inexpensive compared to other grains. Also, as grain becomes a lower portion of the diet, such as in cow diets, wheat may become the sole grain source. Wheat is not recommended in creep diets.
Sprouting: Wheat showing more than 2% percent sprouted kernels is classified as sprouted wheat. The nutritional value of grain protein does not appear to be depressed, providing the sprout is not lost. The value of sprouted wheat for ruminant feed is apparently only slightly affected, if at all by moderate sprouting as demonstrated in a Washington State study.
One aspect of the feeding of field sprouted grains that must be mentioned is the fact that mold and fungal infestations are more likely with sprouted grain. Care must be taken to avoid feeding moldy wheat to livestock to prevent mycotoxin poisoning.
The following table contains various concentrates with their relative energy values compared to corn and suggested levels of use in feedlot diets:
Value of various energy sources compared to corn in feeder rations with ration restrictions
| Value Compared to Corn (%) | Ration Restriction (maximum %) | |
| Corn Animal fat Barley Beet pulp, dried Millet Milo Molasses Oats Rye Wheat Wheat bran Wheat middlings |
100 160-180 88-90 88-95 90-100 85-95 70 88-94 80-85 100-105 65-80 70-85 |
100 5 100 50 100 5 25 20 40 10 20 |
Source: University of Nebraska Beef Cattle Report, 1972
Roughage are included in finishing rations 1) to contribute to the physical nature of the rations and 2) to provide nutrients (Guyer et al., 1972). Grass hay, alfalfa hay, silage, corn cobs, straw and others can be used to alter the physical nature of the ration. Roughages vary a great deal in their nutrient content. Five pounds of "as fed" corn silage can be an excellent roughage and a valuable energy source.
Roughages can be processed so that they can be handled mechanically and be more uniformly mixed with the other ration ingredients. Hay need only be coarsely chopped. From 1/2 inch to 1 inch is the recommended chop length. Hay chopped to longer lengths will create separation problems when mixing. Corn cobs should be ground through a 1/4 inch screen. Silage should be cut at approximately 3/8-1/4 inch or if harvested at less than 60% moisture, should be run through a recutter screen (Guyer et al., 1972).
When the roughage is mixed into the total ration, suggested roughage levels are 5-10% of the total dry matter of the diet. When facilities are not available for uniform mixing, roughage levels of 15-20% should be considered. Good quality silage should be about 30-40% moisture and contain 45-50% grain on a dry matter basis.
Many of the common natural protein sources are by-products of the cereal and vegetable-oil milling process. Protein sources are usually priced higher than feed grains but a protein deficiency is usually more expensive than a slight surplus of protein in the diet. The National Research Council (NRC) requirements for beef cattle are considered minimum values for nutrients such as protein. Therefore, it is not uncommon to feed protein levels slightly higher than those recommended by NRC. The NRC recommendations for protein will be higher in their next edition, scheduled for release in 1996. This increase reflects increased requirements associated with growthier cattle, common use of implants, and lower feed intakes with high concentrate diets not commonly fed.
Soybean meal: There are a number of sources of natural protein but the most common for Ohio feedlot operators is soybean meal. The various sources of soybean meal (mechanically extracted or solvent extracted) do not appear to be significant when choosing a source of soybean meal for beef cattle. Today, most soybean meal is derived during the solvent-extraction process of oil extraction. Price per unit of protein will be the major factor to consider when choosing most protein sources.
Soybeans: Feeding soybeans is not a new concept (Morrison, 1947). Trenkle et al. (1993) observed that cattle fed soybeans gain as well as those fed soybean meal. Heat treatment or extruding the beans did not appear to be beneficial. Davenport et al. (1988) suggested that some bypass protein may be of benefit when feeding growing calves a corn silage-based when utilizing ground soybeans. It is not recommended to blend raw soybeans with urea. Feed only enough soybeans to meet the protein requirements. The high oil (fat) content of soybeans can cause digestive problems if fed at excessively high levels.
Bypass Protein: Bypass protein is that protein which escapes (bypasses) digestion in the rumen. This bypass protein is potentially digested in the lower tract of the animal. The animal has two sources of protein: Bypass protein and microbial protein. For finishing cattle, microbial protein is usually sufficient to meet the animal's requirements (Klopfenstein and Goedeken, 1986). Young animals on lower energy diets or consuming lower quality feeds may benefit from some bypass protein supplementation. High protein diets with blood meal (a high bypass protein source) may give large benefits in performance early in the receiving period for calves (Fluharty and Loerch, 1991). However, the choice of supplemental protein source should be based upon price, availability, and projected improvement in performance (Fluharty and Loerch, 1993). Protein sources with high bypass potential are brewers grains, distillers grains, distillers grains plus solubles, corn gluten meal, dehydrated alfalfa (20%), blood meal, meat meal, and fish meal (Stock et al., 1984). Additionally, the amount of soybean meal protein that bypasses the rumen increases as the concentrate level of the diet increases, due to a decrease in rumen pH.
Nonprotein Nitrogen (NPN): The use of urea or other NPN compounds can often reduce protein costs. One pound of pure urea provides 2.92 pounds of protein, giving it a protein equivalent of 292%, but feed grain urea contains other ingredients to prevent caking and lumping, and these lower the protein equivalent to approximately 262-281%. The 281 urea is the most common source. Fertilizer grade urea is similar to feed-grade urea, but contains no additives to keep it free-flowing and often is mixed with other nitrogen compounds not recommended for livestock use.
Feeds are analyzed for nitrogen in the laboratory to determine their crude protein. Protein averages 16% nitrogen. Thus, the percent nitrogen multiplied by 6.25 gives the percent crude protein analysis. Urea contains 42 or 45% nitrogen, therefore, the protein equivalent of urea is: 6.25 x 45 = 281% or 6.25 x 42 = 262%. In another words, one pound of urea contains enough nitrogen to make 2.62 pound to 2.81 pounds of protein.
Rations containing NPN should be mixed uniformly and not topdressed. Dry supplements may absorb moisture and bridge in the bin if they contain more than 10% urea. Urea in meal type supplements may sometimes separate out as the feed is unloaded. Check to see if a lot of urea (crystals) are in the bottom of the feed wagon or bunk. Feeding silage or molasses will reduce the separation problems. Ideally, urea containing supplements should be mixed into the ration on a daily basis.
Plant protein appears to be more efficiently utilized compared to NPN sources when starting cattle on feed. Animals under 450 lbs gain more efficiently on natural protein. Calves at 450-600 lbs on a growing ration can make use of some urea provided they receive at least 4-5 lb of grain/head/day (Baker, et al., 1983). Animals over 600 lbs make the most efficient use of urea. Cattle lose their tolerance to high levels of urea rather rapidly, and after they have been off feed for 1 or 2 days, they may need to be adapted again to high levels of urea. The most important factor influencing the amount of urea a ruminant animal can use is the energy content of the ration (Goodrich et al., 1976).
In general, urea should not supply more than one-third (33%) of the protein equivalent in a ration. For a high corn finishing diet, this would mean that all the supplemental crude protein can come from urea. Calves weighing less than 750 lbs will benefit from some natural protein in the supplement. In addition, it is not uncommon for some individuals to figure on 20-25% protein equivalent basis for safety reasons. The pounds of urea which may be fed per head daily can be figured this way (Goodrich et al., 1976): Urea (lbs/day) = .075 + (.011 x Pounds of Grain fed)
Including urea into diet at a maximum rate of 0.45% of the diet has given excellent results with most types of rations (Strasia and Gill). If natural proteins are expensive, it may be more economical at times to go to levels up to 0.8% of the ration as urea. However, gain and efficiency may be reduced particularly in calves weighing less than 750 lbs.
Maximum amounts of urea for yearlings and calves
| Concentrate content of the ration | Pounds of urea | |
| Yearlingsa | Calvesb | |
| 81-100, % 61-80, % 40-60, % Less than 40% |
0.28 0.24 0.19 0.12 |
0.20 0.17 0.14 0.10 |
The maximum levels in this table are in reference to
maximum levels so as to not greatly exceed protein requirements
rather maximum safety levels.
aYearlings: 650 lbs and heavier
bCalves: 450-650 lbs
Source: Goodrich et al. (1976)
Prior to the introduction of ionophores, it was observed that there was a 3-5% lower performance of cattle fed high moisture grains and urea as the sole supplemental nitrogen source. Davis (1982) suggested that the comparable performance achieved with urea vs. natural protein source in his trials was attributable to feeding Rumensin, due to its effect on increasing ruminal starch digestion and decreasing microbial-protein degradation, in agreement with the work of Bartley and Nagaraja (1982) and Nagaraja and Bartley (1982) with both Rumensin and Bovatec.
Supplemental minerals will be needed if urea is used to replace natural protein sources. Trace minerals that are usually added to high-urea rations are cobalt, zinc and sulfur (Sewell, 1979). A nitrogen-to-sulfur ratio of 10-15:1 is recommended for urea supplements. This level of sulfur is recommended for the total ration. Goodrich et al. (1976) recommended 2 grams of sulfur should be fed per head per day when urea-containing rations are fed. Sulfates are more efficiently used than is the elemental form of sulfur.
Most cases of urea toxicity are due to poor mixing of the feed or to errors in calculating the amount of urea to be added to the ration (Stanton, 1981). Urea toxicity is characterized by restlessness, tremors, excessive salivation, rapid breathing, lack of coordination, bloat, tetany, and death. These symptoms usually occur in the order listed and at a very rapid rate.
A veterinarian should be called to treat cases of urea toxicity. As an emergency measure, 1 gallon of vinegar may be administered via stomach tube (Goodrich et al., 1976). This procedure will not be of much value after tetany has become a symptom.
Urea must be mixed thoroughly in with grain. If you grind your own feed, make a premix of urea and 200-300 lbs of grain and then add the remaining grain. It is very difficult to obtain uniform mixing of urea when it is added as the last ingredient to a nearly full mixer. Allow the mixer to run for 5 to 10 minutes after the last feed ingredient has been added. It can be difficult to add urea to high moisture (15%) grains because the moisture can cause the urea to clump and convert to ammonia. The addition of 3 to 5% molasses will increase the palatability of urea. Avoid mixing urea with raw soybeans.
Other forms of nonprotein nitrogen exist besides urea. Biruet is formed by heating urea. It is less soluble and is broken down at a slower rate than urea (Goodrich et al., 1976). The slower rate of decomposition makes it less toxic than urea when fed in large doses or when fed in low energy diets. Urea has also been combined with starch from grain and the sugars in molasses through heat and chemical treatment to slow the release of ammonia (Sewell, 1979).
Feed tag laws require the feed tag to have the percent crude protein equivalent derived from nonprotein nitrogen. For example, a feed tag on a protein supplement may state the following:
Crude protein.......................not less than 38%
Crude protein from NPN......not more than 14%
1 pound x 14% Crude Protein from NPN = .14 pound CP from urea
.14/281% = .05 pound of urea